Class activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Class activity - Essay Example In view of this, executives must understand that they have a legal and moral responsibility to implement preventive measures to eliminate harassment. Case Analysis: Will teams work 1. The managers must be trained on the technical aspect of the job. Training on productivity and how to motivate the workers should be given to the managers. This will be very helpful to them in creating a workplace conducive to productivity. 2. The managers should be competent in the technical know-how. They should not only be results-oriented but also learn to appreciate the efforts applied on the job. Team work should also be emphasized. These competencies will help motivate the workers more. 3. The managers should be trained first and foremost on the technical aspects in the automobile parts manufacturing. This will take around six months to one year. Training on human relations is essential so they will learn to deal with the factory workers and eventually learn to motivate them; thus, making them mor e productive. This training will probably take one month. 4. One of the alternatives to management development is the development and training of the factory workers.

Intellectual Property Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intellectual Property Law - Essay Example In today’s marketplace, IP is not an afterthought, but an issue at the management and the board level, since it has shareholder value consequences. The critical value of high quality IP strategies cannot be overlooked, since it has the capability of fostering innovation and giving an organization a competitive edge and advantage. Licensing of IP, at a time when companies are considering other technological and commercial models, as is the case in the energy sector where most companies are considering climate-friendly technologies, can help protect a business from unnecessary lawsuits and legal battles, and provide an important source of revenue. This paper offers Greentech Ltd, a low carbon technology, energy firm, advice with regard to the management of its Intellectual Property portfolio, and proposes an a high quality IP strategy the firm can rely on in the management of any future innovations, especially in the area of Low Carbon Technology. The proposed IP strategy is aim ed at enabling Greentech Ltd to maximize its Research Division innovative outputs. Additionally, the strategy is targeted at enabling the acquisition of innovative ideas and research outputs of persons who are not employed by Greentech Ltd, and facilitation of entry of such ideas and other new ideas into the market at a faster rate. The paper is divided into three parts; Part I offers a brief background of Greentech Ltd current IP holdings and status, Part II outlines recommendations with regard to how Greentech should manage its current Intellectual Property Portfolio, while Part III describes a high quality IP strategy that Greentech will rely on in the management of any future innovations, especially in the area of Low Carbon Technology. Part One: Background and Introduction Background Greentech Ltd at present has various Intellectual Property holdings; it has, over the years licensed various technologies, specifically, it holds 20 licenses, from other parties as a way of enhanci ng its research projects. The company continues to pay, as is contained in the licensing contracts, royalties for all the 20 licenses; however, some of those IP holdings are no longer needed. Greentech Ltd has in the past has licensed certain technologies to other firms without proper initial exploration and research of the market to ascertain how to strike a better deal for the firm. The company, as part of its culture, has always endeavoured to ensure that all its research outputs are patented, and that those patents are sustained. This it has done even in cases where some patents have failed to yield substantial returns. Currently, Greentech Ltd holds 10 patents, all of which were granted between the year 2000 and 2011. The firm has recently developed a new and a potential market-leading technology, that is patentable; however, given the estimated cost, ?10 million, of further development, the firm is unable to fund further development of the technology. The firm has very poorly drafted employment contracts, which is not strict on confidentiality issues; as a result the employees who leave are not in any way deterred from taking confidential information with them. Additionally, Greentech Ltd has failed, in some cases, to use non-disclosure agreements, or in some cases, has used them in a

Loss of Brain Nerve Cells in Alzheimers Disease

Loss of Brain Nerve Cells in Alzheimers Disease Fig-6: Showing neuronal death due to inflammation and oxidative stress. Adenosine Deaminase (ADA), and Neuropsychiatric Disorders:- Adenosine is a neuromodulator of brain function that is uniquely positioned to integrate excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission and neuroprotective actions in pathological conditions. The understanding of adenosine production and release in the brain is therefore of fundamental importance and has been extensively studied (ADA-8). Adenosine metabolism in the brain is very important, and its dysregulation has been implicated in pathophysiology of several neuropsychiatric disorders, since it modulates the release of several neurotransmitters such as glutamate, dopamine, serotonin and acetylcholine, decreases neuronal activity by pos-synaptic hyperpolarization and inhibits dopaminergic activity. Adenosine deaminase participates in purine metabolism by converting adenosine into inosine (ADA-7). (The production and metabolism of adenosine is given in the Fig.7) Adenosine deaminase (ADA, adenosine aminohydrolase, EC 3.5.4.4), an enzyme involved in the metabolism of purine nucleosides, catalyses the irreversible hydrolytic deamination of adenosine (Ado) and 2 ´-deoxyadenosine (2 ´-dAdo) to inosine and 2 ´- deoxyinosine, respectively. The enzyme is widely distributed in vertebrate tissues and plays a critical role in a number of physiological systems. In nature, several isoforms of ADA are known that differ by molecular mass, kinetic properties and tissue distribution (ADA-2). It plays a role in the development and functioning of T lymphomonocytes. Levels of this enzyme increase during the mitogenic and antigenic response of lymphocytes, whereas ADA inhibitors limited the blastogenesis of lymphocytes; thus, ADA levels are higher in T cells than in B lymphocytes. ADA was previously recognized as a cytosolic enzyme; however, it is currently known to be present at the surfaces of cells, in particular T lymphocytes, to interact with some membrane proteins, including CD-26/DPP IV, and is considered an ecto-enzyme. This co-localization of DPP IV/CD-26 and ADA at T cells is important for the activation of T cells because the interaction of ADA and CD-26 at the T cells results in co-stimulatory signs responsible for the activation of the T cell receptor (ada ). Long considered to be an immune-privileged site because of the presence of the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) and the lack of a lymphatic system, it is now well-established that the brain is fully capable of mounting inflammatory responses in response to invading pathogens, trauma, or ischemic events (G-17). Fig. 7 Pathways of adenosine production, metabolism and transport, with indications of the sites of action of various enzyme inhibitors. Abbreviations are as follows: ADA, adenosine deaminase; AK, adenosine kinase; AOPCP, a,b-methylene ADP; DCF, deoxycoformycin; EHNA, erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl)adenosine; es, equilibrativesensitive nucleoside transporters; ei, equilibrative- insensitive nucleoside transporters; 5-IT, 5-iodotubercidin; NBMPR, nitrobenzylthioinosine; PDE, cAMP phosphodiesterase; SAH, S-adenosyl homocysteine. Activation of oligodendrocytes results in secretion of inflammatory molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO), cytokines, and prostaglandins and most  notably in upregulation of several chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, including NG2, which contributes to the growth-inhibitory environment that prevents regeneration of axons in the injured CNS. In summary, in acute situations and when short lived, neuro-inflammatory mechanisms generally limit injury and promote healing; however, when neuro-inflammation becomes chronic it can damage viable host tissue, resulting in compromised neuronal survival and cognitive impairment. For these reasons, inflammation in the CNS has been appropriately described as a two-edged sword (G-17). Again Hcy activates cytokines and pro-inflammatory molecules, such as IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-12, IL-18, IL- 1 receptor antagonist, C-reactive protein, adhesion molecules (P-selectin, E-selectin, ICAM-1), and metalloproteinases (MMP-9). In addition, Hcy up-regulates reactive oxygen species, leading to activation of NF-kappa B, the pro-inflammatory nuclear regulatory molecule (G-3). On the other hand, neuropsychiatric disorders have been shown to be accompanied with some immune-inflammatory alterations. In this regard in order to make a contribution to the understanding of the ongoing immune disturbance in neuropsychiatric disorders, serum ADA activity was determined in neuropsychiatric patients and compared with healthy controls. Intracellular and extracellular levels of adenosine are tightly controlled by specific nucleoside transporters and several important enzymes, which include adenosine deaminase (ADA) and 5’-nucleotidase (5’-NT) (ADA-4). ADA activity is known to be increased in inflammatory diseases characterized by T-cell activation and proliferation. Therefore, ADA is considered a marker of T-cell activation. In addition, overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anion (Oà ¢- _ 2); nitric oxide (NOà ¢- ) and singlet oxygen (1O2) creates a condition known as oxidative stress, resulting in the amplification of the inflammatory response (ADA-6). Studies related to ADA levels in neuropsychiatric patients are virtually non-existent. ADA and schizophrenia Adenosine may play a role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, since it modulates the release of several neurotransmitters such as glutamate, dopamine, serotonin etc. Dutra GD et al (2009) showed that decreased ADA activity in schizophrenic patients than in control subjects (ADA-7). Brunstein MG et al (2007) reported that the schizophrenic patients treated either with typical antipsychotics or clozapine showed increased serum ADA activity compared to controls (ada-b sub 14). ADA and Depression Elgun et al (1999b) reported that decrease ADA activity in patients with depression compared with controls, might reflect the impaired immune system in depression (A sub). Mackiewicz et al (2006) showed that ADA levels did not change with age in rats (A sub). Herken H et al (2007) showed that ADA levels of the patients were significantly higher than the controls (abstract ref). An increasing body of evidence implicates both brain inflammation and oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease (A-9). Inflammation is a cause, contributor, or secondary phenomenon in the disorder inflammatory pathways are altered in the periphery in AD, together with evidence that increased peripheral inflammation leads to more neurodegeneration and accelerated disease progression in animal models. Antioxidants defense:- Humans have evolved a highly complicated antioxidant defense system to combat the damaging effects of free radicals. Under physiological conditions, overproduction of ROS and RNS and their neutralization is prevented by the activity of endogenous anti-oxidative defense system (AOS). Antioxidants are a broad group of compounds which constitute the first line of defense against free radical damage thus are essential for maintaining optimum health and well-being. They are protective agents, capable of stabilizing or deactivating free radicals before they attack cells. Being beneficial compounds, they control free radical formation naturally and help organisms to deal with oxidative stress caused by free radicals (antiox 4) (Fig. 8). Antioxidant system encloses enzymes like superoxide dismutase; catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and other antioxidant-regenerating enzymes such as gluthatione reductase; dehydroascorbate reductase and glucose-6 phosphate dehydrogenase, that maintains reduced NADPH; hydrophilic scavengers like urate, ascorbate, gluthatione, flavonoids; lipophilic scavengers, like tocopherols, carotenoids and ubiquinone. The great majority of antioxidants are supplied with the diet and includes polyphenols, lipoic and ascorbic acid, carotenoids, lycopene, quercetine, genstein, ellagic acid, ubiquinone and indole-3 carbinole. In fact, in the biological systems, the normal processes of oxidation produces highly reactive free radicals and each of this administered compounds is involved in the physiological redox balance preventing damage to the tissues (antioxi 3). Enzymatic Antioxidants An important part of the intracellular antioxidant defense systems are antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidases. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) SOD is found abundantly in many organisms, from microorganisms to plant and animals, since superoxide radicals (O2−†¢) are toxic to living cells, oxidizing and degrading biologically important molecules, such as lipids and proteins. The role of SOD is to protect aerobic cells against O2−†¢ action. It catalyzes O2−†¢ dismutation reaction into H2O2 and O2−†¢. There are three known types of SOD: two copper-zinc containing SOD (CuZn-SOD), one in cytosol and one bound to the vascular endothelium ( also called â€Å"extracellular SOD† (ECSOD)) and a manganese containing SOD (MnSOD), which is localized in the mitochondrial matrix (antio-4). This enzyme specifically catalyzes the dismutation of O2−†¢ anion into H2O2 and O2−†¢ in a pH-independent medium (5–9.5). Manganese SOD is the mitochondrial form of this dismutase. Its active site contains manganese and reduces the O2−†¢ generated during the ETC. T he amount of MnSOD inside the cell varies according to the number of mitochondria found in each cell type. This enzyme has antitumor activity. Extracellular SOD also contains copper and zinc in its structure and is the main extracellular SOD. It is synthesized inside the cells and secreted into the extracellular matrix (G-66, G-71, SOD-1). Fig. 8- Mechanism of action of antioxidants Catalase (CAT) Catalase is an enzyme that reacts very effectively with H2O2 to form water and molecular oxygen and with H donors (methanol, ethanol, formic acid, or phenols) with peroxidase activity. Catalase protects cells against H2O2 generated inside them. Although CAT is not essential to some cell types under normal conditions, it has an important role in the acquisition of tolerance to ONS in cellular adaptive response (G-10). Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and Glutathione Reductase GPx is an enzyme that contains a single selenocysteine (Sec) residue in each of four identical subunits, which are essential to the enzyme’s activity. Humans have four different GPx types: (1) a classic cytosolic form; (2) a membrane-associated GPx phospholipids, (3) another cytoplasmic enzyme, gastrointestinal GPx; and (4) an extracellular type. All GPx enzymes are known to add two electrons to reduce peroxides by selenols forming (Se-OH). GPx antioxidant properties allow them to eliminate peroxides as potential substrates for Fenton’s reaction. Glutathione peroxidase works together with glutathione tripeptide (GSH), which is present in cells in high (micromolar) concentrations. The substrate for the GPx catalytic reaction is H2O2 or organic peroxide ROOH. Glutathione peroxidase catalyzes hydroperoxide reduction using GSH, thus protecting mammalian cells against oxidative damage. Glutathione metabolism is one of the most important antioxidant defense mechanisms (G-10). Together with classic H2O2-removing enzymes (CAT and GSH-Px), the enzyme thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) is a seleno-flavoprotein which forms the thioredoxin system together with the protein thioredoxin (Trx) and NADPH. This is an effective system to reduce proteins in disulfide form and it also participates actively in the removal of H2O2 and other peroxides (G-57). 4) Thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) TrxR catalyzes the reduction of Trx especially, but in humans it can also reduce other substrates, such as vitamin C. This reductase also catalyzes the reduction of disulfide proteins and it is involved in countless vital processes, such as DNA synthesis and the regulation of apoptosis. Additionally, this system also donates electrons during DNA synthesis, and NADPH and human TrxR by themselves or with Trx are efficient electron donors to this human plasma peroxidase, which allows this enzyme to reduce hydroperoxides even when there are low levels of GSH available (G-52). There are three identified TrxR isoenzymes: cytosolic (TrxR-1), mitochondrial (TrxR-2), and a third isoenzyme which has been isolated from the mitochondrion of rat testes (TrxR-3). TrxR-1 has wide substrate specificity, since it is responsible for reducing not only Trx but also hydroperozides, lipoic acid, ubiquinone, and dehydroascorbate. Thus, the Trx system is regarded as having a crucial role maintaining a cell’s redox state. It may also have a role in the system which regulates the expression of redox-sensitive genes through the activation of transcription factors (G-58). Non-enzymatic Antioxidants Vitamin E (ÃŽ ±-tocopherol) The lipid-soluble antioxidant vitamin E is localized in the cell membrane and has been targeted for its relation to atherosclerosis and vascular function. Decreased concentration vitamin E (ÃŽ ±-tocopherol) scavenges the chain-carrying peroxyl radicals rapidly and interrupts the chain propagation. During this reaction, vitamin E becomes a free radical called tocopheryl, which is less reactive than the lipid radical and migrates to the surface of the membrane to be transformed again into tocopherol through the action of ascorbic acid (G-72) (Fig-9). However, in elevated concentrations the tocopheryl radical may act as pro-oxidant. On the other hand, ÃŽ ²-carotene is a hydrophilic precursor of vitamin A and large concentrations accumulate in the membranes of certain tissues. Its antioxidant activity is related to the removal of O2−†¢ and free radicals formed during lipid peroxidation. This activity is due to its conjugated double-bonded structure that can dislocate unpaired electrons, which enables ÃŽ ²-carotene to physically quench singlet oxygen without degradation (G-65). Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) Vitamin C is a hydrosoluble antioxidant, which facilitates its diffusion into intra- and extracellular matrices. Its antioxidant potential is related to direct removal of O2−†¢ and HO†¢. Furthermore, it contributes to regenerating oxidized vitamin E; however, vitamin C also has pro-oxidant activity. It may be the one compound, in addition to HO†¢, that can convert Fe3+ into Fe2+, which then reacts with H2O2 to form OH. Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that participates in a large number of cell functions (antio 5). All

Plato’s Influence on Western Civilization Essay -- Greek Metaphysics,

Our country is built on a set of values derived from ancient civilizations, individuals, and city-states; both negative and positive attributes of these relics can be proven to have assisted in molding our government into a unique and prized entity. Never would one imagine that western civilization is actually inclined by theories of truth and the human beings perception of it. Few would have thought that a primitive concept could be linked to the setbacks of other societies and their forms of socialization, as well as to the success to ours. The basic concept of truth and our natural response to socialization developed an ideal image of our current day country, long before our country existed. In ancient Greece, a great philosopher named Plato founded one of the most famous schools in all of history. Plato was a student of an enlightened man and a teacher of many others. Plato’s contribution to our existing government is given little credit, yet thanks to him we function as o ne of the most sophisticated societies in the entire history and the world. Plato, whose real name was Aristocles, was believed to have been born the year 427 BCE in Athens, Greece. He was born into a wealthy, Athenian aristocratic family, who actually came to rule Athens in 404 BCE. Because of his family’s prosperous background, Plato was treated to fine education. Plato’s upbringing ultimately influenced his viewpoints on particular subjects pertaining to philosophy and politics, a majority of his thoughts were pulled from two chief occurrences in his life; the Spartans victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian War, and the teachings, as well as the execution, of Socrates. The Peloponnesian War began before Plato’s birth, yet didn’t end until he was abo... ...Web. 25 Nov. 2013. . Patten, Joseph, and Kevin Dooley. "Ancient Political Theory." Why Politics Matters: An Introduction to Political Science. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Co, 2011. 35-47. Print. "Politics." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 02 Dec. 2013. . "Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander." Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander,New Directions in Philosophy and Education, Plato's Academy. The Annenberg CPB/Project, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2013. . Thornton, Bruce S. Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization. San Francisco: Encounter, 2000. Print. Plato’s Influence on Western Civilization Essay -- Greek Metaphysics, Our country is built on a set of values derived from ancient civilizations, individuals, and city-states; both negative and positive attributes of these relics can be proven to have assisted in molding our government into a unique and prized entity. Never would one imagine that western civilization is actually inclined by theories of truth and the human beings perception of it. Few would have thought that a primitive concept could be linked to the setbacks of other societies and their forms of socialization, as well as to the success to ours. The basic concept of truth and our natural response to socialization developed an ideal image of our current day country, long before our country existed. In ancient Greece, a great philosopher named Plato founded one of the most famous schools in all of history. Plato was a student of an enlightened man and a teacher of many others. Plato’s contribution to our existing government is given little credit, yet thanks to him we function as o ne of the most sophisticated societies in the entire history and the world. Plato, whose real name was Aristocles, was believed to have been born the year 427 BCE in Athens, Greece. He was born into a wealthy, Athenian aristocratic family, who actually came to rule Athens in 404 BCE. Because of his family’s prosperous background, Plato was treated to fine education. Plato’s upbringing ultimately influenced his viewpoints on particular subjects pertaining to philosophy and politics, a majority of his thoughts were pulled from two chief occurrences in his life; the Spartans victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian War, and the teachings, as well as the execution, of Socrates. The Peloponnesian War began before Plato’s birth, yet didn’t end until he was abo... ...Web. 25 Nov. 2013. . Patten, Joseph, and Kevin Dooley. "Ancient Political Theory." Why Politics Matters: An Introduction to Political Science. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Co, 2011. 35-47. Print. "Politics." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 02 Dec. 2013. . "Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander." Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to Alexander,New Directions in Philosophy and Education, Plato's Academy. The Annenberg CPB/Project, n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2013. . Thornton, Bruce S. Greek Ways: How the Greeks Created Western Civilization. San Francisco: Encounter, 2000. Print.

Throughout history there have been two main kinds of virtue

Throughout history there have been two main kinds of virtue.   One is Plato’s, in which virtue is associated with attributes such as justice, wisdom, courage and moderation, and the other is Machiavelli’s, in which is associated with being the best at any given task.   Many reasons could account for this drastic change in the definition of virtue put forth by Machiavelli, but the most important would be found in a consideration of the time period in which Machiavelli lived.   This paper will explore how and why Machiavelli’s concept of virtue came to be so different from the one Plato had originally put forth. There is ample evidence to suggest that Machiavelli was familiar with the works of Plato.   He was an avid reader of many subjects, especially those of a political nature.   He was also an admirer of Ancient Roman society and must have been exposed to many ancient authors.   There was also the fact that for all their intellectual advances in art, law, philosophy and medicine, the Renaissance Italians were indebted to the ancients.   Their practice of imitating those thinkers of ancient history led the Italians to rediscover many facts about the world, which were once only known to the ancients.   Even so, Machiavelli chose to radically change the concept of virtue to an idea that is nearly the opposite of what Plato had in mind. (Wootton xiii) The concept of virtue that Plato had in mind was most readily laid out in the Republic.   Although it is mentioned several times throughout the book, virtue generally comes to mean an attribute of the concepts already explained above.   Specifically, with regard to justice, which the Republic is most concerned with, virtue means being just.   For the citizens of a state to be virtuous, they must be just to their fellow citizens and the state itself, and for the state to be just, it must attempt to run the most virtuous state as possible. In the beginning of Book I, Socrates gets into a debate with some of his fellow citizens about the meaning of justice.  Ã‚   After Polemarchus picks up where Cepalus’s argument left off, Thrasymachus, who is getting fed up with Socrates consistently refuting the arguments of all who try, attempts to give his own definition of justice.   He demands that Socrates give his own account of justice.   But after some words, Socrates persuades Thrasymachus to put forward his concept of the virtue of justice.   The account of justice that Thrasymachus finally gives is that â€Å"justice is the advantage of the stronger.†Ã‚   It is a sort of â€Å"mite is right† argument in that whoever is ruling, and whatever they demand of their subjects must be obeyed.   If the citizens do not obey, then they are being unjust.   (Grube) The view of Thrasymachus is somewhat similar to Machiavelli’s view.   In The Prince, Machiavelli lays out his concept of virtue (which he calls virtà º) in chapter 6, which is entitled â€Å"About new kingdoms acquired with one’s own armies and one’s own skill [virtà º].†Ã‚   In the chapter, one is left with the impression that virtà º means that quality which one is endowed with when they are the best at what they are doing.   Thus a soldier is virtuous when he is successful in defeating an army, or gaining a new principality. As Machiavelli put it, â€Å"The virtuous man is the man who has those qualities that lead to success in his chosen activity.† For Machiavelli, a person need not be â€Å"good† to be virtuous.   After all, Machiavelli condoned lying, treachery, cowardness, murder, anything necessary as long as it leads to victory in the chosen field.   This idea of virtue is a far cry from that of Plato or Christianity, which had been the official religion of Italy for twelve hundred years. (Wootton) In the same chapter, Machiavelli highlights certain people who, in his opinion have been the most virtuous throughout history.   He lists, â€Å"Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, Theseus, and others like them,† to make his case.   He dismisses Moses skill because it is a skill derived from following the direct instructions of God.   But he then goes on to discuss the others because they have all â€Å"acquired existing kingdoms or founded new ones.† Machiavelli admits that, â€Å"the founders of new states have immense difficulties to overcome, and dangers beset their path, dangers they must overcome by skill and strength of purpose.†Ã‚   But as he then goes on to say, the most virtuous, â€Å"once they have overcome [the dangers], and they have begun to be idolized, having got rid of those who were jealous of their superior qualities, they are established, they are powerful, secure, honored, happy.† (Wootton) To understand why Machiavelli’s concept of virtue may have been so different from that of Plato, one need look no further than to Machiavelli himself and the time period in which he lived.   In the sixteenth century, Italy was divided into many different, competing states.   There was a near constant shift in alliances between the differing states that lead to having to be constantly aware of the possibility of danger from a neighboring state.   There was no real security in Italy; there were powerful people constantly vying for more power, and many of them willing to gain that power by any means necessary. Under this system of chaotic statehood, diplomatic officials, and military and political advisors had to constantly be alert for any new crisis that might move previously friendly states to war. (Wootton) In most of these states in Italy, torture was accepted as a legal means of obtaining confessions for crimes, or pursuing investigations into crimes.   In 1513, Machiavelli had the unfortunate circumstance of finding himself under question in regards to his supposed plotting against the Medici family, who were then in control of the new government in Florence.   He was tortured on a contraption known as a strappado.   This device is, at its simplest, a rope thrown over a high beam. The prisoner’s hands are tied behind his back and he is then lifted up several feet in the air.   If allowed to hang there for several hours or several days, he considers himself lucky.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The other way of using the strappado is to allow the prisoner to fall until his feet almost touch the ground and then pull the rope tight.   The result is generally two dislocated shoulders, and extreme pain.   Machiavelli had this happen to him six times in the same investigation.   Italy in the sixteenth century was not a pleasant place to live. (Wikipedia) Machiavelli’s political career had mostly to do with military planning.   As a civil servant, his most important achievement was in 1505-6, when, in Florence, he organized a militia to replace the mercenaries upon which Florence had traditionally relied.   He was at the same time a diplomat and responsible for traveling to several different neighboring states in attempts to keep the peace.   (Wootton) In 1494, Italy was invaded and continued to be invaded on and off throughout the rest of Machiavelli’s life. And as diplomat and war advisor, his job was to find alliances in any way possible.   This is the reason Machiavelli thought it so important not for a ruler to live his life by principle, but powerfully. The Prince is an example of the way a tyrant would hold on to power.   In modern day democratic theory, some people would argue that the need for all information to be made available to the public is necessary for the public to be able to decide which path in a particular situation the state should follow.   According to The Prince the people should have no say in the direction of government and should never influence the rulers thinking, unless it would add to the ruler’s virtue. When considering the age in which Machiavelli lived and the events and responsibilities he had in life, it is easy to understand why he would view virtue so radically different than Plato.   When Machiavelli was so involved with the planning stages of military strategy, doing his best to not have Florence invaded by a hostile power, it may have been necessary to do and say things he knew were lies.   And being in an environment like that, and trying to be good at what he was doing, led Machiavelli to develop a concept of virtue that was completely distinct. Works Cited Grube, G.M.A., ed. Republic. 1st ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1992. â€Å"Strappado.† Wikipedia. 08 Apr. 2006 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strappado>. Wootton, David, ed. The Prince. 1st ed. Indianapolis : Hackett, 1995.

Equal Exchange: Trading Fairly and Making a Profit Essay

I, Executive Summary Equal Exchange is a for-profit Fair-trade worker-owned, cooperative company. Founded in 1986, it is the oldest and largest Fair Trade coffee company in the United States. Equal Exchange began with $100,000 as started up funds and a 2,000-quare-foot room in Boston’s South End. It purchased coffee beans from small-scale farmers at above-market price in Latin America. Initially, EE relied on other roasters and packers to prepare the premium coffee beans.  It sold to natural food grocers, gourmet shops, restaurants, and non-profit organizations. The company’s founders wanted to help famers get a better, more stable price and, at the same time, take advantage of the growing consumer demand for higher-quality â€Å"specialty† coffee. However, after 25 years in business, and 10 of which were spent as the only fair trade company in the coffee industry, Equal Exchange’s tremendous success seemed to have come to a screeching halt. If the impact of price increases is excluded, for a second year in a row, its revenues have grown only 2 percent. This is hardly acceptable comparing with the double-digit growth it had been through for the previous 15 years. Additionally, over the past few years, consumers have begun to show a strong desire to purchase products from local businesses, thus increased competition from local roasters. Moreover, there is a major push by companies to offer a wide variety of green, organic, and wholesome food products. There are so many new initiatives developing and it may be possible that fair trade products will not stand out so much anymore. As a result, Equal Exchange is likely going to fail into the red zone in next few years, if nothing is changed. Since EE has become a famous brand, I highly recommend EE’s staff to continue expand its potential in producing new products and starting to offer service, in order to solve listed problems. More specifically, in business strategy, EE need to keep following its broad differentiation strategy. However, it needs to create more products in order to be able to compete with many competitors. EE has been taking customers’ trust in its products, so that producing new ones would bring its customers into experiencing them no matter what. There were still various fairly traded goods that EE did not offer, and they might become preferred products. In corporate strategy, if EE choose to start offering service, this would be consistent with the company’s mission such as ecotourism to coffee or cacao growing zones to support those communities. II, Introduction In 1983, Rink Dickinson, Jonathan Rosenthal, and Michael Rozyne were all recent college graduates and working for a food co-op warehouse in the Boston area. They began to question the system such as, â€Å"What if food could be traded in a way that is honest and fair, a way that empowers both farmers and consumers? What if trade supported family farms use of organic methods  rather than methods that harm the environment?† Almost simultaneously they started to hear about groups in Europe who were doing Fair Trade. The advocates of Fair Trade wanted to ensure that the producers of products such as coffee, teas and chocolate would get a better price for their crops while supporting improvement in their environmental, social and political conditions. Rink, Jonathan and Michael liked the idea. According to Rink, they â€Å"were basically food co-op people, interested in connecting small, local farmers with consumers to change the marketplace.† It was not their intention to found a company at that time. They took the idea to the Board of Directors of the co-op warehouse. Half of the board supported the idea and half voted against it. It became apparent to them that if they were going to pursue their vision, they were going to have to develop an organization. Over the next three years they met once a month to develop the plans and raise the capital for founding their own organization. During that time Rink said they used their jobs to learn about cooperatives, small farmers, entrepreneurship, marketing and â€Å"making mistakes, right and left.† The food co-op gave them â€Å"a great environment to learn some skills†. In 1986, Rink, Jonathan and Michael decided to launch Equal Exchange (EE). By that time, their ambition was â€Å"†¦to change the way food is grown, bought, and sold around the world.† The founders decided to meet once a week – and did so for three years — to discuss how best to change the way food is grown, bought, and sold around the world. At the end of this time they had a plan for a new organization called Equal Exchange that would be: A social change organization that would help farmers and their families gain more control over their economic futures. A group that would educate consumers about trade issues affecting farmers. A provider of high-quality foods that would nourish the body and the soul. A company that would be controlled by the people who did the actual work. A community of dedicated individuals who believed that honesty, respect, and mutual benefit are integral to any worthwhile endeavor. Around 1991, Equal Exchange established itself as a Fair Trade specialty coffee company, offering loyal food co-op customers a store bin system with a full line of beans, decaf coffee, different roasts, and flavored coffees. By the end of the year what had once been the â€Å"pipe dream† of reaching $1  million in sales had become a reality. By 1994, Equal Exchange was a worker-owned cooperative with 20 members—with departments, managers, and a growing number of outside investors. A pivotal early investment by the Adrian Dominican Sisters helped to alert others that this undertaking, however risky, might be worthy of outside financial support. Another exciting chapter in our history started in 1996, when Equal Exchange joined with Lutheran World Relief in a path-breaking collaboration to launch what has now become our Interfaith Program. This major initiative helped Equal Exchange create partnerships with communities of faith throughout the U.S. Over the next seven years more than 10,000 congregations across the U.S. began using our Fair Trade coffee. III, Assignment Question 1. Question 1 What are the strategically relevant components of Equal Exchange’s macro-environment? Are socio-cultural, environmental, economic, and other components of the macro-environment favorable to the sellers of fair trade food and beverage products? Does the industry offer attractive opportunities for growth? a) Strategically relevant components of Equal Exchange’s macro-environment Political factors: There were no laws in the U.S restricting the use of the term â€Å"Fair Trade† on a product labels. This makes it is a little difficult for EE to prove themselves overwhelming their competitors. Economic conditions: In 2010, Fair Trade USA reported that there were over 9,500 fair trade-certified consumer products being offered by 700 industry partners in more than 600,000 retail locations. Paul Rice, the president and CEO of fair Trade USA, said that in 2010 the fair trade retail sales market was $1.4 billion in the U.S and $3 billion in Europe. Socio-cultural forces: EE developed advertisements, implemented public education campaigns, partnered with religious organization, and created a school fund-raising program. EE also offered a wide variety of fair trade product. Technological factors: EE was effective in creating messages about the origins of products and where consumer dollars went. For example, it used logo and labels that suggested consumers could have a great cup of coffee or bar of chocolate while feeling good about them. It also created a website as a place for consumers to connect to the farmers who grew the products they bought. Legal and regulatory factors: Fair Trade USA has  certain guidelines for participating business to follow, including EE. Fair trade certifiers agreed on eight basic principles, which are: + Long-term direct trading relationships + Prompt payment of fair prices and wages + No child, forced or otherwise exploited labor + Workplace non-discrimination, gender equity, and freedom of association + Safe working conditions and reasonable work hours + Investment in community development projects + Environmental sustainability + Traceability and transparency b) Are these factors favorable to the sellers of fair trade food and beverage products? This depends on the product itself, though these factors do make products are increasingly imported over more than a decade from 1998 to 2010. Some products have great growth rate, such as tea (38%), sugar (60%), cocoa (67%), and vanilla (97%). On the other hand, some products are not favorable to consumers, such as produce (2%), flower (0%), and wine (-63%). c) Opportunities for growth The far trade movement caught on in 2000 when many companies began to follow the same path as EE – more specifically, into the business of fair trade coffee. Basically, the industry still offer very attractive opportunities for growth due to its growth rate, but it is quite difficult to reach those opportunities due to rivalry. 2. Question 2 Explain the competitive pressures facing the fair trade food and beverage products industry. What does a five-force analysis reveal about the nature and strength of the competitive pressures facing Equal Exchange? Which of the five forces is the strongest? Which of the five forces is weakest? a) The competitive pressure facing the fair trade food and beverage product industry. Fair trade coffee was EE’s primary product, accounting for 80 percent of sales in 2010. At that point, there were over 300 companies in the U.S that provided fair trade coffee. EE managers admired the social mission of some of these companies and even considered those who were truly committed to far trade to be friends. However, they were also competitors. There were two groups of competitors to EE. One class consisted of larger companies that competed in the high-end, organic coffee market, but also got involved in fair trade coffee. The other one were small, local, and regional competitors operating in different areas off the U.S. There are a lot of name can be pointed out, such as Starbuck, Green Mountain Coffee, Deans Beans, and Thanksgiving Coffee. With this much rivalry, EE sure had a great pressure in the industry. b) Five-forces analysis Threat of new entrants: Since fair trade food and beverage products industry is a profitable market that yield high returns, new firms would be attracted. But this is not a problem for EE to concern, because it knows those farmers and their struggles. Nevertheless, when it came to rivalry, EE’s values provided a much different outlook than a typical business. Threat of substitute products: Coffee is a special product with hardly substitute product, so this is not really a threat for EE. Bargaining power of customers: EE partnered with fair trade advocacy organizations, such as Global Exchange, to create a nationwide public education campaign. In 1996, EE partnered with Lutheran World Relief to create something that later became known as the Interfaith Program, and it raised relief funds for farmers in Nicaragua who were hit hard by Hurricane Mitch in 1998. These partnership helped EE generate revenues, create goodwill within communities, and create awareness among consumers about fair trade products. Bargaining power of suppliers: EE’s promise to provide consumers with reasonably priced, good quality food, all while fairly paying the farmer who produced the goods was quite unlike most other companies. Intensity of competitive rivalry: As mentioned before, there are many strong competitors against EE, both as small and large ones. Addition, the fair trade industry is open, so competing is unavoidable. Though EE do not mind too much having many competitors, those ones still create barrier for them to reach more customers. To be concluded, threat of substitute is the weakest force and intensity of competitive rivalry is the weakest force. 3. Question 3 What are the key elements of Equal Exchange’s strategy? Which of the five generic strategies is the company pursuing? How has the cooperative integrated corporate social responsibility into its business strategy? a)  Key elements of Equal Exchange’s strategy EE wanted to change traditional purchasing habits and make consumers more aware of where products came from and who was responsible for making them. At the same time, it wanted to encourage consumers to buy more fair trade products. To do that, EE use advertising in packaging and labels, website, and public awareness. Also, it created interfaith program, applied fundraising program and outbid their competitors in terms of product variety. b) Generic strategy EE follows broad differentiation strategy.  EE’s promise to pride consumers with reasonably priced, good quality food. Though it tried to keep their price lowest as possible, it still fairly paid farmers quite a lot even if coffee prices in the world’s commodities exchanges dropped below the fair trade minimum price. It also focused on keeping their quality on products in any condition. c) Cooperative integrated corporate social responsibility EE worked with financial institutions to give farmers pre-harvest loans with affordable 8 to 9 percent short-term interest rates. Brokers typically offered loans at much higher rates of 25 percent. EE also guaranteed a quarter of each pre-harvest loan. It thus shared the risks associated with misfortunes, such as hurricanes, that could destroy a cooperative’s crops. EE bought the coffee beans once a year, as soon as they were harvested (even though this tied up its capital in inventory). In terms of employee, EE wanted to cultivate excellent working relationships with its employees. Its managers believed that a democratic work environment in which employees shared responsibility for decision making would lead to higher levels of job satisfaction, morale, and productivity. It made sure that the pay gap between the highest-paid manager and the lowest-paid employee was reasonable. Besides, EE sought to reconnect consumers with the farmers who grew their food. When consumers saw a brand-name product in the supermarket, EE wanted them to realize that there was often a person toiling away for little pay behind it. By raising such awareness, the company hoped to direct consumers towards products for which farmer got paid higher prices so they  could better support their ways of life. 4. Question 4 What are Equal Exchange’s competitively important resources and capabilities? Which of its resources have the greatest competitive power? Are any of its resources and capabilities able to pass all four VRIN tests for sustainable competitive advantage? Explain. a) EE’s competitively important resources and capabilities Worker co-operative model: EE believed strongly in creating better, healthier relationships with the Earth, with farmers, its workers, and with the consumer. Worker-owners enjoyed many rights and responsibilities and democratically controlled the workplace. At EE, a co-executive director, a roaster, a packer, and a customer service representative were equal, with one share and one vote per person. This makes every employee of EE want to contribute their best to the company. Marketing strategies: EE wanted to change traditional purchasing habits and make consumers more aware of where products came from and who was responsible for making them. This leads to many well-crafting strategies, such as interfaith program and fundraising. Supplier: Unlike other companies, EE wanted its suppliers, farmers specifically, to be paid more, not less. So, it sought out fair trade-registered co-operatives that enabled small-scale farmers to pool their resources, increase their power in the market-place and share the costs of upgrading their operations. These farmers were trained in how to acquire information on market trends and in how to cultivate high-quality crops . b) Unique resources and capabilities The only resource or capabilities that is able to pass all four VRIN test for sustainable competitive advantage is worker co-operative model. Value: It is difficult to find good employees, but it is much harder to keep good employees to work for the company. That is the reason why building relationship between employees is very important, and critical. EE’s worker co-operative model is showing its precious value for this part. Rare: Treating everyone the same is really rare. Normally, the higher-ups receive much more respect than lower staffs do, but EE deals nothing like that. This hardly can be found in any other company, which makes it a unique component. Inimitable: Human relevant is the only one that is inimitable. EE’s worker co-operative model makes its workers feel comfortable, as everyone is equal. Therefore, employee loyalty is guaranteed and untouchable from external conditions. Non-substitutable: EE built up its image with equal employees, and no other capability can replace this. EE likely is said to stick with its worker co-operative model at anytime, and the way around. It is hard to find another company which can apply this model better than EE. 5. Question 5 What does a SWOT analysis reveal about Equal Exchange’s ability to seize market opportunities and nullify external threats? Strength Experienced in the market High social awareness Technology up-to-date Unique work model Good financial performance Weakness Lack of consumer awareness Unsatisfactory working condition Farmer exploitation Opportunities Expanding business Offering new products Threats Many wealthy competitors Unstable market Table 1: SWOT analysis of Equal Exchange EE can use its strength to seize opportunities and nullify threats. More specifically, due to high social awareness and with technology up-to-date, EE can easily expanding its business into other activity, such as services. Otherwise, it can produce new products that have not been offered in fair trade market. On the other hand, with experience in the market, EE can find a way to compete with competitors in the fair trade market using its good financial performance. 6. Question 6 What is your assessment of Equal Exchange’s financial performance and condition? Is the company in good financial shape? Why or why not. Use financial ratios in Table 4.1 to help support your assessment. Figure 1: Equal exchange sales growth Since importing its first coffee container in 1986, EE had become the leading fair trade brand of food and beverages in the U.S. This helped the co-operative achieve a trend of double-digit revenue growth. However, the recession that struck the U.S changed the outlook for business. The financial data for the fiscal year of 2006 through 2010 demonstrated EE’s growth and showed whether the co-operative was able to weather the economic downturn. Figure 1 demonstrates EE’s growth of sales from fiscal year 2006 to fiscal year 2010. In 2006, success in many areas defined much of EE’s 14 percent increase in revenues, which translated into an additional $2.86 million in annual sales. In particular, sales were exceptionally strong in the West Coast region. Another key contributor to sales was EE’s chocolate products, which were a hit in 2006 because the quality chocolate market was seeing growing demand, or a â€Å"renaissance†, as EE called it, similar to what occurred with specialty coffee 20 years prior. While this was occurring, EE simultaneously expanded its chocolate line to products such as organic dark chocolate, organic mint chocolate, and organic chocolate syrup. This expansion allowed the company to ride the growing demand for quality chocolate. EE also introduced three new tea bagged products, which helped increase tea sales 35 percent. Till 2010, it is a hard time as coffee and chocolate prices continued to rise. EE was faced with a difficult challenge of helping farmers during this time, providing customers with stable prices, and maintaining a profit margin consistent with the co-operative’s goals. Sales totaled $36,525,856. This growth of roughly 2 percent was relatively flat for the second year in a row. The growth experienced was due in part to the notable increase in EE’s direct sales to food co-operatives. This is something the co-operative did to avoid the use of distributors.